The Meiji Restoration that followed the
collapse of the feudal order was an era in Japanese history in which Japan
sought to abandon its traditional isolationist stance and modernize its
economic and political systems, military capability and social order. The
efforts undertaken by the Japanese government represent an attempt to shield
the country from forces of Western imperialism by strengthening its position
relative to Western powers. The
recognition of the distinctive ‘spirit’ of the samurai class fostered their
successful reallocation into productive positions in government, agriculture,
industry, and commerce and thus served as a major catalyst in allowing Japan to
achieve the extensive socio-political modernization and sustained economic
vitality that it desired during the Meiji Restoration.
The Japanese samurai emerged as a distinctive
social class during the feudal era. The samurai were endowed with the ability
to commit acts of violence against commoners who failed to adhere to societal
norms, and maintained a monopoly on the bearing of arms; effectively serving to
strengthen their power relative to others. (Norbeck, 1967, 8-9; Hayes, 2005, 13)
Characterized by their unwavering might and prominent role in protecting the
court aristocracy as “military specialists,” they developed their own unique
identity and social construct (Ikegami, 1995, 47). In direct competition with
the feudal aristocracy, they achieved and maintained their position in society
by utilizing their power to subordinate and dominate those of lesser standing.
(Ikegami, 1995, 49) The samurai differed from prior military men in ancient
Japan by their professionalism both in terms of skill and in the realization of
themselves as honorable professional warriors. (Hayes, 2005, 13) During the
early stages of feudalism, this identity allowed many of them to enjoy
comparable wealth to that of aristocratic society without requiring the attainment
of the requisite status afforded them. (Ikegami, 1995, 47-48) Thus, the samurai
had succeeded in utilizing their military prowess to escalate their position in
society in early feudalistic Japan.
While it is without doubt that the early
samurai possessed tremendous military capability, it was the manner in which
they portrayed themselves that earned them their special place in history. At
the height of their feudal prosperity, the samurai embodied an unwavering sense
of self-discipline, loyalty and honor among its members that became recognized
as the “spirit of the samurai” (Yamamura, 1968, 153). This ‘spirit’ permeated
all actions of the samurai and became the code of ethics under which they not
only fought, but lived. A samurai would rather sacrifice his own life than risk
a violation of the bushido, or samurai moral code. (Ikegami, 1995, 278) The
samurai sense of morality was highly regarded by the lords who capitalized on
these qualities during the extensive period of relative peace during the Tokugawa
period. A subsequent mutually amicable relationship arose that allowed for the
incorporation of the samurai into bureaucratic, landlord-like positions
highlighting their abilities. They were placed into administrative and public
service posts and were rewarded with economic security as payment for their
services (Black, 1975, 47). For the
first time in their history, the samurai were able to achieve recognition and
economic self-sufficiency, as a result of their skills and ethical conduct off
of the battlefield.
The highly regarded status enjoyed by the
samurai was however temporary; challenged by the political and economic
transformation experienced by Japan during the mid nineteenth century. Japan
came to the realization that Western ideals and tactics threatened the
continuance of Japanese independence and way of life, thus prompting the
commencement of the Meiji Restoration and a newfound “commitment to social
change and political modernization” (Hayes, 2005, 18). The gradual
disintegration of the feudal system and the revitalization of imperial power
with its concurrent industrialization and economic modernization served to
adversely impact the samurai. (Gordon, 2000, 2) A shift from a predominately
agricultural society to a commerce-based society destabilized the
land-dependent samurai. This, coupled with a plethora of social reforms,
resulted in their demotion and the accompanying revocation of their privileged
ruling status while the nation was simultaneously undergoing the most
miraculous transformation of its history. (Yanaga, 1955, 120; Ikegami, 1995,
360) The “Charter Oath” was declared by Emperor Mutsuhito of the Meiji regime,
and it propagated a blending of social classes, encouraged Western learning in
an effort to strengthen Japan’s militaristic capabilities, and thus prompted a
reorganization of the military (Hayes, 2005, 18). The 1873 introduction of
universal male conscription and the corollary increase in military spending
reduced the aggregate competency of samurai warriors, who had lived through an
extensive period of relative peace during the Tokugawa era and had been trained
using outdated forms of armor and military tactics. (Black, 1975, 45-46; Berry,
2006, 227) As a result, the fate of the samurai had been in jeopardy. Thousands
found themselves unemployed and facing poverty, having lost their rights to own
land and property. (Black, 1975, 55) In short, the Meiji Restoration
transformed Japanese society and established a new order in which the military
skills of the samurai were no longer needed, and it served to relegate them to
a civilian life with no prestige, power or economic security. (Yanaga, 1955,
124)
The samurai however were not ordinary
citizens. Many were learned individuals and many had significant leadership
abilities. (Hayes, 2005, 19) Their military training, ability to cope with
hardships and selfless dedication coupled with their strict code of ethics
served to distinguish them from the civilian population. (Yamamura, 1968, 145)
Their sense of bushido portrayed their “honor as a cultural representation of
their power and independence” (Ikegami, 1995, 34). Internalization of these sentiments among the
samurai evolved into a sense of autonomy and individuality whereby the
individual was the “ultimate owner of his mind and soul” (Ikegami, 1995, 34).
Their feudalistic origins, where they relied upon their lords for small
stipends, endowed them with the merits of frugality and loyalty. (Norbeck,
1967, 20) During the Tokugawa period their position as landlords allowed for
their accumulation of financial and administrative experience as well as
entrepreneurial capability. (Gordon, 2000, 1) The samurai were far more than
simple warriors whose time had past. Their attributes were of great value and
their collective spirit eternal. Despite their setbacks, the ‘spirit of the
samurai’ would propel them forward into an era of modernization and change.
The Meiji government of 1868 found itself
facing the serious dilemma of having to reallocate the 1.8 million displaced
samurai. (Harootunian, 1960, 433) The revitalization of Japan required a
restructuring of the existing social system, and the changes led to the
demotion and virtual annihilation of the samurai as a hereditary military
class. (Harootunian, 1960, 433) But having a highly educated, dissatisfied
group of people living in the throws of poverty was not conducive to Western
ideals, and their frequent uprisings threatened the goals of the Restoration.
(Black, 1975, 227) In addition, the government recognized the value of the
political, administrative and literary accomplishments of the class to the
furtherance of their own economic advancement, and as such absorbed the samurai
into their new culture through the “samurai rehabilitation program”
(Harootunian, 1960, 435). This program was primarily designed to assist the
Meiji government in expanding its agricultural, commercial and industrial
programs while secondarily providing a solution to the samurai problem (Hayes,
2005, 19). While there was some doubt as to whether or not the samurai would be
able to assume their new role, most were able to adapt the characteristics that
had allowed them to prosper during feudal times to their changing situation.
The government assisted by enacting laws that provided the samurai with increased
job opportunities in industries that fostered economic expansion. Many samurai
found themselves financiers, managers and workers. (Harootunian, 1960, 434) A
large number of ex-samurai were also assigned to wasteland reclamation projects
where the government hoped to stimulate investment and enterprise among them
while simultaneously providing them with income and housing. (Haratoonunian,
1960, 436) In an effort to expand their national banking facilities, the
government established a mutually beneficial system whereby samurai pensions
would be used as securities to allow for the development of bank branches.
(Harootunian, 1960, 440) Keeping with
their pursuit of Western industrialization, the Meiji government enacted a
capital loan program that granted funding to samurai who chose to invest in
industry or commerce that resembled Western practices. (Harootunian, 1960, 442)
Between 1876 and 1889, the number of samurai who owned businesses expanded
rapidly. (Harootunian, 1960, 444) Many
samurai embraced their altered role in society because it afforded them a new
“elite” status and its appeal to nationalism awakened the “sleeping spirit of
the samurai” (Ikegami, 1995, 361). The
motivations behind the samurai rehabilitation program maybe subject to challenge,
but what is clear is that the program did allow an opportunity for many samurai
to capitalize on their skills and “together with a growing merchant class, many
of whom were themselves samurai, [were able to provide] the human resources
that propelled the country politically and economically forward” (Hayes, 2005,
19).
The Meiji leaders engaged the samurai in industries in which
they were most likely to reach their full potential. The samurai contributions
that followed impacted all major aspects of the Meiji economy and accelerated
its growth and development. (Harootunian, 1960, 444) While it can be argued
that the samurai had no choice but to accept their fate and resign themselves
to their new positions, it is the expertise that they brought and the spirit
which they personified that heralded their position as major contributors. The
knowledge of agriculture embedded in the samurai from their feudalistic
upbringing, combined with their managerial skills allowed them to assist the
government in cultivating thousands of acres of previously designated wasteland
for commercial, investment and residential purposes. Upon the request of Kuroda
Kiyotaka, the Minister of Colonization, the government established a program to
develop these lands, and it was uniquely suited to the dual skills of the
samurai employing both their peacetime agricultural and industrial skills and
their wartime military capabilities. (Harootman, 1960, 439) These endeavors led
to the recruitment of 7,500 samurai and the subsequent development of the
formerly barren northern area of Hokkaido. (Harootunian, 1960, 444) The samurai
were also credited with possessing “strong entrepreneurial spirit,” having
channeled their medieval qualities of frugality and self-determination into an
intense interest in money and profit; placing them in a position perfectly
suited for “advancement of the new nation” (Yamamura, 1968, 145). It is often
contended that the development of capitalism in Japan was a by-product of
samurai business acumen and their ability to sacrifice self-interest for
national interest. (Yamamura, 1968, 153) There were those who believed that the
samurai were more suited than either the peasant or merchant class to assume
the responsibilities of Western-type industrialization because they were not
burdened by traditional business techniques and methods. (Haroootunian, 1960,
442) In fact, Godai Tomoatsu, the leading entrepreneur of the Meiji period was
of samurai origin. (Brown, 2003, 1) What is undeniable is the multitude of
samurai-owned businesses that arose during this period ranging from small
companies to large corporations and their impact on promoting Japan’s
modernization. (Harootunian, 1960, 444) Samurai influence was so significant
that some interpretations of the modern banking system in Japan credit the
samurai with its establishment. (Yamamura, 1967, 199) Samurai leadership
abilities led to claims that they were “natural leaders” and that their
“participation in government affairs brought to it a polished purity and
virtue” (Harootunian, 1960, 433). Noteworthy among the many samurai to assume
leadership positions in the Meiji government were Ito
Hirobumi who went on to become the countries first prime minister; Okubo
Toshimichi who led the revolution against the shogunate; and Saigo Takamori who
later assumed command of the imperial army (Beasley, 1957, 91). The
samurai of the Meiji Restoration had overcome the loss of their traditional
infrastructure but had retained the attributes needed to become major
contributors to Japanese expansion and revitalization.
The samurai were a valiant and noble group
whose contributions to Japanese prosperity greatly exceeded their military
prowess. Their skills in government, agriculture, industry and commerce have
left an indelible mark on almost all aspects of the Meiji economy. Far greater
than their materialistic contributions was the ‘samurai spirit’ which they
embodied. Their code of honor permeated every aspect of their existence and
integrated itself into the Japanese way of life. Reaching its height during the
feudalistic period, the ‘samurai spirit’ became the propellant that allowed for
their survival during the Meiji Restoration and for their emergence as a major
contributor to the economic, political and social transformation of Japan. The
samurai leave behind a legacy of tradition and legend and a ‘spirit’ that will
forever be symbolic of the integrity and drive that characterized the
successful Japanese transformation.
Works
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